Sulla and Marius, Roman Empire

After the tumultuous years of the Gracchi, Rome enters a new political reality - one where men of great influence, reputation, or wealth can gather unprecedented power around themselves and where the personal rivalries of the powerful can send the Roman state into the chaos of civil war.

Two men dominate Roman politics for the next decade. On the one hand, Lucius Cornelius Sulla, a member of a noble but destitute family, and on the other, Gaius Marius, a novus homo or new man, wealthy and ambitious but from an insignificant plebeian background.

Marius’ early career is star-studded. After becoming consul (the most senior office in the Roman Republic, held by two men elected every year) in 107 BCE, he leads the final push against the Numidian king Jugurtha, capturing him and ending a war that had been a thorn in the side of Rome for several years. Then, in 104 BCE, Marius obtains the consulship again, this time to end the threat of the Teutones and Cimbri, Germanic tribes who have moved into southern Gaul and are threatening Roman territory. Marius wins a dramatic victory at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae and then ends the war a year later, defeating the Germans at Vercellae.

Marius is a plebeian, a champion of the populares and is wildly popular with the common people. With this support, he wins six consecutive consulships, allowing him to sideline the Senate and break the traditional elite's monopoly on power. Rome's poor begin to feel empowered, Rome moves closer to a democracy, and the rich sharpen their knives.

Marius’ greatest contribution to the unfolding of Roman history is his military reforms. The so-called ‘Marian Reforms’, passed during his first consulship in 107 BCE, allowed landless citizens to join the Roman army (before only those who owned property could join). All soldiers are expected to serve for 16 years. In return, they have their equipment provided, are paid from the public purse, and, at the end of their service, are granted a pension or a plot of land to call their own. These reforms form the backbone of Roman military organisation for centuries, and, as it is the generals who distribute the rewards of service, they tie soldiers’ loyalty more firmly to their commanders. Ambitious politicians' futures are now more closely tied to their military commands, beginning the practice of powerful generals having essentially private armies as long as their commands last.

Sulla is Marius’ comrade in Numidia, helping to deliver Jugurtha into Marius’ hands. But, as Marius ages, Sulla begins to surpass him in deeds and exploits and, as a member of an ancient line, aligns himself with the optimates. A rivalry develops, and when Sulla is voted a command to lead a legion against King Mithridates of Pontus, Marius leverages his popularity with the people to go over Sulla’s head and strip him of the command, giving it instead to his ally, Publius Sulpicius Rufus.

Furious at this humiliation, Sulla gathers his supporters and marches on Rome, igniting Rome's first civil war (an act echoed by another would-be Italian dictator in 1922). Marius flees, and Sulla reinstates his command, setting off to battle Mithridates.

Marius takes the opportunity of Sulla’s absence and returns to Rome with an army. He begins mass executions and purges of Sulla’s supporters and prepares his allies for Sulla’s return. Marius is 70 years old at this point, and he dies in 86 BCE, 17 days into his seventh consulship, before the return of Sulla’s legions.

Sulla returns to Italy for the final showdown in 83 BCE. The Sullan and Marian forces meet again and again in the Italian countryside. The struggle is bitter, but eventually, Sulla gains the upper hand, and the Marians are defeated at the Battle of the Colline Gate. Sulla and his legions march into Rome as the supporters of Marius desperately flee. The optimates have won control of the Roman Republic, and the populares are, at least for the time being, utterly vanquished.

The First Roman Civil War deepens the crisis of the Late Republic. Now, influential men gather about them the power and loyalty of entire legions and are willing to use their soldiers against other rival Romans. Civil war becomes an accepted way of dealing with political disagreements, violence replaces debate, and the divide between the populares and the optimates widens.